Urban Planning: Canberra: Going Global

Below is a group report which was written by myself, Stuart Hunter, Jacob White and Nick Goodman. It discusses how Canberra would qualify as a global city and how it attracts, competes and interacts with other cities nationally and internationally.

Introducing Canberra as a Global City

Emerging in the late 20^th Century, the ‘global city’ as a concept is defined as an economic and social entity that is able to overcome the traditional constraints that the nation-state structure might otherwise place on the free flow of capital, labour, and enterprise. Viewing globalisation through the lens of the ‘global city’ with a strong focus on the networked economy, is an intangible economy based on services and intellectual property. The globalisation process has itself facilitated an unprecedented growth in international business transactions, movements of goods and capital, and has allowed regions and indeed cities to specialise in the production of goods and services that they can create most efficiently. Many of these conventional constraints do not apply to a connected global city in the 21^st century, many constraints which otherwise may have placed an unassailable economic dampener on the development of cities like Canberra in developed economies.

How these global cities compete to attract talent capital from around the world is a point of study for urban and regional planners as they seek to understand and emulate the conditions locally to make a city competitive globally. Many of these developments have been catalysed by the proliferation of accessible and affordable telecommunications, as well as favourable policies by governments to actively liberalise the flow of trade and remove barriers to foreign investment and movement of labour. Michael Porter’s ‘Diamond Model of Competitive Advantage’ outlines the principle factor conditions that can catalyse to create conditions in which global cities can thrive. The model highlights six points upon which this kind of competitive advantage is reliant. Porter’s theory was originally to be applied to firms and the advantages that they would have in international trade, other scholars have since expanded upon this model and it can be adapted to understand how cities compete in the globalised age to grow, attract, and retain talent. How urban and regional planners are able to envisage, plan, and create these global cities has become a major question in the planning field, and this report will seek to highlight Canberra’s movement towards this status as it moves to compete in a globally competitive marketplace.

Evaluating Canberra: Strengths and Weaknesses

How a global city can be evaluated is a broad question as it entails much criteria, particularly as cities are seen as large hubs not just for trading and culture but also for living and operating as a society. This can be applied to Canberra in many different means. Sassen (2005) raises 7 hypothesis of a modern global city. These include;

1.        i.          The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks globalization, along with the simultaneous integration of such geographically dispersed activities, is a key factor feeding the growth and importance of central corporate functions.
2.       ii.          These central functions become so complex that increasingly the headquarters of large global firms outsource them: they buy a share of their central functions from highly specialized service firms.
3.      iii.          Those specialized service firms engaged in the most complex and globalized markets are subject to agglomeration economies.
4.      iv.          The more headquarters outsource their most complex, unstandardized functions, particularly those subject to uncertain and changing markets, the freer they are to opt for any location.
5.       v.          These specialized service firms need to provide a global service that has meant a global network of affiliates and a strengthening of cross border city-to-city transactions and networks.
6.      vi.          The economic fortunes of these cities become increasingly disconnected from their broader hinterlands or even their national economies.
7.    vii.          One result of the dynamics described in hypothesis six, is the growing informalization of a range of economic activities which find their effective demand in these cities, yet have profit rates that do not allow them to compete for various resources with the high-profit making firms at the top of the system.

(Sassen, 2005)

All of these hypotheses are then seen as necessary to a global city, therefore if each feature is applied to a city it can be decided if the given city is a global city or not, and also what its strengths and weaknesses are.  In the instance of Canberra as this report is based around, these 7 hypotheses can be summarised into 4 main points. The first is that these global cities are largely based around the concept of their own individual economy and how it interacts with others globally, locally and internally. Secondly it can be drawn that often these cities are based around central hubs of businesses and these areas are often the most diverse and dynamic areas within the city, whereas outer areas are often disadvantaged, when compared to these inner hubs. Thirdly, these global economies operating in the cities are filled with networking as the industries within, such as financing operate across borders and between firms with outsourcing forming a large part of this.  Last, however these links between and across borders are not simply business they are also political, social and cultural.

               With all this is mind, applying each of the last four summary points to Canberra will enable an evaluation on Canberra as a global city. The first is that each global city is either planned or based and has developed around its own economy and how that it interacts with others. In Canberra, with it being a planned city Canberra has been planned around it self and thus developed around the economy it has within. As seen in its design, there is a central hub in the CBD and close surrounds houses a large majority of business operations. This is not only housed within the CBD but also the Central areas of surrounding suburbs such as Belconnen, Woden and Tuggeranong. This is consistent with the planning scheme for Canberra and the points raised by Sassen.

               The second point being that these central areas are often the most dynamic and diverse areas of the city, when compared and contrasted to the outer surrounding areas. This can be seen widely throughout Canberra as the CBD is considered a vibrant area, especially with the new developments such as the New Acton area and the Nishi complex. These areas have a large and diverse range of services and cultural offerings in a close area. These areas are also constantly updated and visually appealing. Contrast this with the often-dilapidated suburbs of Lyneham in Belconnen, Northbourne Avenue with its dilapidated building or Phillip in Woden. These areas are old; offer very few services and opportunities for employment or the recreation areas for it citizens.  This is form the large centralized approach to planning that Canberra was implemented with and the way that the money coming into Canberra’s economy comes through these central business hubs first then spreads out to these areas after.

            The third point is the business and operations that take place often cross border and firm within and without this area and economy. This can be largely seen from the outsourcing that takes place from within the Government here in Canberra.  The best example of this is the outsourcing of their I.T. operations. (Holland, 2001) in this example the Government opted to outsource their I.T. operations to up to 60 different agencies. This was large as the private sector could perform these tasks more efficient and to reduce the load on the Government.  This is not only cross between Canberra firms and the Australian Government, which is based here but also firms which have operations in many locations such as Computer Sciences Corporation Limited, which have headquarters located in Sydney but have offices in almost every state in Australia and also offices across the globe.  Thus these links are business across borders, stateliness and local operations and also a degree of political link with these follow.

               The final point of summarizing the hypothesis was that the links are not simply business, but political, social and cultural. As the example above has stated and shown political links and business links can exist across borders and do within Canberra. The most prominent example of Political links is the fact that Canberra itself is the central hub for Australian parliament and thus Government. As the policies made and discussed here in Canberra have far reaching effects across all of Australia and in terms of international business and trade too across to the international scale.  In terms of social and cultural links within Canberra these are some what a little lacking when compared to Melbourne or Sydney which are seen as vibrant social and cultural hubs. Yet Canberra does have social links. Canberra is the sister city of both Beijing in China and Nara in Japan. This Sister city link promotes business links and social programs between the two cities in their lifetime.  From this we then gain their culture and experiences.  However Canberra does have a high percentage of overseas born residents. With over half of the residents of Civic in Canberra were born overseas (Belot, Westcott 2014). This then shows we do have links social and then associated culture that comes with this. This statistic also backs up the second point of the central hub being more diverse. From these points Canberra can be seen as a global city, in terms of its layout, population and economic links, social and cultural links and it political standing within the Australian setting.

How Global Cities Interact, Compete and Attract

Global cities interact, compete and attract in various behaviours and often the characteristics of these means will define a global city. Canberra manages to act as a global city by interacting, attracting and competing with national and international cities to enhance its global presence. Interaction between cities allows businesses to prosper, information and resources to be shared, services to provide to their greatest capacity and for cities to develop a wider sense of community. For global cities to interact there must be a combination of centralisation and dispersal of economic activities (Sassen, 2005, 32). As previously discussed, Sassen (2005) identifies a few specific features of a global city, including: multiple headquarters of different corporations, companies that are large enough to need to outsource some of their services, and consist of companies that provide a service of which the local and wider economy and society needs. Large corporations which centralise in any given city develop networks as they expand, creating more opportunities within more global cities; they expand their services to local, national and international cities, allowing their productivity and business to grow. These businesses form networks with other global cities and economic communities which allow them to interact on a business level and exchange resources and information.

Canberra as the capital of Australia is the political headquarters of the country; it interacts with other global cities in terms of international and domestic affairs, economics and politics, using networks of social media, public and private political organisations. Canberra is also leading the way in Australia in terms of communicative technologies with 69.3 per cent of Canberra homes being connected to broadband internet (ANZSOG Institute for Governance, 2013); this is a feature of a global city of which is reliant on technological communication for interaction between other cities. Global corporations interact via the highest end technological developments, and typically are responsible for the interaction between cities. Sassen (2005, 32) confirms that ‘globalised economic sectors tend to be intensive users of the new telecommunications and computer technologies, and increasingly produce a partly de-materialized output, such as financial instruments and specialized services’.

Cities interact on political and economic levels as they expand and develop, although also compete in a similar manner; for example for corporations to develop headquarters in a particular city, for more professionals and graduates to work in these global corporations and live in the cities, as well as for tourism. How these cities compete can be explained by using Michael Porter’s economic Diamond Model, which explains how industries are competitive. The factors consist of the resources, demand, related industries and inputs as well as a company’s structure and management. These features develop the ‘Diamond Model’ and all combine to answer how industries compete, and can be applied to how global cities compete as well (Porter, 1986). The ‘Double Diamond Model’ which is an extension of Porter’s original theory, adds two additional factors and captures the multinational activity of which Porter did not acknowledge; these factors include government and chance. Australia’s capital city is particularly competitive in terms of professionals and education, as Porter acknowledged, resources and related industries are important factors for competitiveness. Canberra is gifted with internationally recognized tertiary education facilities of which attract many new university undergraduates yearly, also; there is a significant movement of people with high-level qualifications into the Canberra region in comparison to that of Sydney, with a total of 40.6 per cent of people having a tertiary qualification.

Competition also develops over their desire to attract, as the more a city attracts, generally means the more it succeeds and the better the capital. As mentioned previously, tourism is another way in which global cities compete for attraction. Competing for attraction in terms of tourism and residency heavily depends on urban aesthetics, population, attractions, culture, sport and special events (Paige, 1995). Urban design and planning is an important element in this area as the transport systems, urban landscapes and aesthetics. Canberra’s aesthetics and urban design are a main tourism attraction, as well as the special events and significant national attractions such as museums and galleries. The capital city is nationally and internationally competitive, interactive and attractive in many ways, particularly due to its political position, its leading tertiary facilities and because of its history of being a planned city.

Urban Form and Retaining Citizens

Canberra is no doubt one of Australia’s leading cities when it comes to how it has been planned and created though its urban form to attract and maintain an increasing population. Canberra has a population of around 380,000 people, been the eighth biggest city in Australia, making it Australia’s biggest inland city (Bobinoz.com, 2014). In 2012 Canberra’s population grew by 2.3 per cent, the increase being the second highest nationally (McIlroy, T. 2013). From this fact alone we can see that Canberra is increasing its population due to many different reasons.

               At the centre of the city is the artificial Lake Burley Griffin, named after the Chicago architects who designed the city. This is a major element to Canberra appeal for both international and domestic people alike. To complement this element, Canberra has large open spaces designed into it that allow a more natural feel to the city and allow people to enjoy more leisure activities closer to the city centre. This is where Canberra in particular differs itself from the likes of Sydney and Melbourne which are much denser and have a high volume of people condensed into a smaller area. 

Canberra, although feeling more like a country town to its Sydney and Melbourne counterparts with Sydney hosting a population of about 4.7 million people, has the largest proportion of residents with a university qualification which in itself is a very high achievement. This static show that after students finish university many are either moving into Canberra or studying in Canberra. These students who are now looking for work are also more likely to find jobs, be involved in research and innovation fields and in general have high-level of occupations within Canberra (Globalisation and Cities Research Program, 2014). This is partly because Canberra is host to the parliaments and other political infrastructure also helping it to encourage people that support the political elements of Australia to be drawn into the city. The biggest employer in the nation’s capital is easily the federal government which accounts for a lot of the higher end white collar jobs (Bobinoz.com, 2014). It should also be noted that Canberra also has the highest proportion of households with access to broadband internet of any major Australian city (Globalisation and Cities Research Program, 2014) This displays how the residence of Canberra are technological savvy in that they are aware of the opportunities that the internet presents. The internet is a major part of the way Canberra can interact with other cities both domestically and internationally and is a big factor when considering global cities.

The infrastructure that Canberra has is another massive reason it’s among the conversation of being or become a global city. Just the fact that it has two major universities means that there is a massive number of people that will look to Canberra when finishing their high school years to further their educations. Not just this Canberra also has many primary, high and preschools plus the option of Tafe to attract home buyers in this area and provide children and adults with high quality educations that can then be taken into the workforce. When these people finish their schooling Canberra looks to accommodate them with offering many different high level occupations meaning that there level of education can be satisfied with an appropriate level of work. This therefore leads to an increased population through maintaining these students. Canberra is also undergoing expansion with new developments going in a few different places. This also is opening up many job opportunities for Canberra residence and accommodating the rising population that Canberra is faced with. The same format in these developments is generally still being used in that it is going with the general master plan of Canberra.

The way Canberra has been designed has also allowed a good flow of traffic in and out of its ever expanding suburbs. This again helps for people living in the areas of Canberra to reach other parts with ease and even in the city centre it is relatively easy to get around. Canberra still has so much potential when it comes to public transport with a good bus system but other systems generally not as good. But this can be put to the fact that the population has not reached a level where these other elements are needed but in time with the current growth of Canberra other public transport maybe introduced.

Conclusion

Evidently through the information presented, Canberra is becoming an increasingly competitive city, both nationally and internationally. Sassen’s theory suggests many features of a global city that are applied to Canberra and its region, and although Canberra is not formally classified as a global city it poses significant potential in the future. Canberra’s competition with tertiary level international schools increases its attraction from young students across all cities. Its political position and advanced technological developments allows Canberra to interact with other global cities, enhancing its global presence and possibility of being acknowledged as a global city.

Bibliography

ANZSOG Institute for Governance, 2013, Centenary Canberra: A City On the World Stage, University of Canberra.

Belot, H. & Westcott, B., 2014, Overseas-born happy to call Canberra home. The Canberra Times. [online], accessed 19 November 2014, available at: http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/overseasborn-happy-to-call-canberra-home-20140318-350pk.html

Bobinoz.com, (2014). Where to live in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. [online] Available at: http://www.bobinoz.com/living-in-australia/canberra/ [Accessed 19th Nov. 2014].

Globalisation and Cities Research Program, (2014). Canberra as a Global City?. [online] Available at: http://www.globalisationandcities.com/news/canberra-as-a-global-city [Accessed 19th Nov. 2014].

McIlroy, T. (2013). New arrivals drive Canberra's population growth. [online] Canberra Times. Available at: http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/new-arrivals-drive-canberras-population-growth-20130620-2ol1j.html [Accessed 19th Nov. 2014].

Page, S.J, 1995, Urban tourism: Attracting visitors to large cities, Elsevier Ltd.

Parliament Library, 2014, The whole-of-government IT outsourcing initiative, Canberra: Politics and Public Administration Group.

Porter, M.E. (1986). Competition in global industries: A conceptual framework. In M.E. Porter (Ed.), Competition in global industries. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. (1986)

Sassen, S. 2005, The Global City: Introducing a Concept, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.

Urban Planning: Smart Cities

The Real-Time City? Big Data and Smart Urbanism - Rob Kitchin 

Rob Kitchin’s article discusses what makes smart cities, and in particular how these cities are connected to ‘everyware’. This connection is by devices ‘built into the fabric of urban environments’ (for example wi-fi, broadband, transport infrastructure etc). ‘Connecting up, integrating and analysing the information produced by these various forms of everyware, it is argued, provides a more cohesive and smart understanding of the city that enhances efficiency and sustainability and provides rich seams of data that can be used to better depict, model and predict urban processes and stimulate the likely outcomes of future further development.’ This connection allows cities and its people to become more knowledgeable and controllable

Big data and cities is the next topic Kitchin discusses, explaining how big data is the collection of large datasets such as national censuses, government records and surveys. The sources of big data are divided into three categories; directed, automated and volunteered. These forms of data are large, detailed and varied. Big data is must be:

• Huge in volume
• High in velocity
• Diverse in variety
• Exhaustive in scope
• Fine-grained in resolution
• Relational in nature
• Flexible

Real-time analytics is a common method for governments to manage how a city functions. This is most common with transportation and the movement of people. This can be measured via surveillance cameras, logging transport usage and even air pollution. There have also been attempts to centralise this information for an open data analytic like in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Communicating this information to the community has been done through ‘city dashboards’ where people can access real-time information about weather, transport, stock market etc. This type of analytics can be extremely helpful for tourists, service workers, firemen, policemen and rescue teams. Concerns about the real-time city include:

• Politics of big urban data
• Technocratic governance and city development
• The corporation of city governance and technological lock-in
• Buggy, brittle and hackable cities
• The panoptic city

Urban Planning: Planning In a Globalised World

The Global City: Introducing a Concept - Saskia Sassen

The chapter by Sassen on global cities discusses what specifically defines a global city and how these features of global cities work. She outlines 7 main hypotheses for the global city model, in summary they are;

1. Geographic location and distribution; where the more dispersed the more complex a firms functions are.
2. Firms outsource their functions to other service firms, for example; accounting, public relations etc.
3. Agglomeration economics; service groups are involved together: ‘mix of firms, talents, and expertise form a broad range of specialised fields makes a certain type of urban environment function as an information centre.
4. Signficant amount of heatquarters of firms
5. Provides a global service or a partnership which strengthens cross border transactions and networks
6. The amount of professionals and proven talent
7. Firms that need to operate- society, businesses and economies need their services

Evidently from these hypotheses, technology and the existence of transnational corporations define global cities. The growth of networks between global cities is dependent on political, cultural, social and criminal factors. The article then goes on to discuss worldwide networks and central command functions, and expands on the importance of headquarters in global cities as well as stock markets, agglomeration economics and trade.

The next section discusses the impacts of new communication technologies on centrality. There is three assumed points about centrality and technology. Firstly there is no longer a distinct correlation between centrality and geographical centres like CBDs and downtown. Second, the centre can extend to form a grid due to expansion like in Paris and third, these centres are fundamental to economic and trading. Other than these listed above, technological communications may also cause inequality between global cities where there are larger economic and social structures. 

The final section discusses the global city as a centre of political power, and when this centre does not possess official political power, corporations hold an even greater power.

Urban Planning: Australian Planning History

The Americanization of Australian Planning - Robert Freestone (2004)

This article by Robert Freestone addresses the impacts American planning on Australia. Australia has been influenced in a number of ways including economic, political and cultural means. Australia as a new country was very open to new technologies, capital and people from across all sides of the world. ‘Modern Australian society is often portrayed as steering between “British cultural imperialism and Coca-colonisation alike.’" Some of the basic American influenced movements and happenings are listed below;

• -        The Aesthetic City; American planners were influenced by American features, buildings and landmarks, in particular by the City Beautiful Movement.
• -        The City Functional; around World War II a functional city planning method was introduced where capital city based planning practices around their communities and locals. ‘The “great difficulty” with Australians, according to James Peddle, was their individualism: “we think of my piece of land, of my lot, of my garden, while our American neighbours think of their city.”’
• -        Toward War and Reconstruction; During war periods Australia was looking towards other countries for ideas and innovation. Urban renewal projects, planned community development and innovative site planning were all introduced in Australia thanks to America in this period. These also included slum clearance, rehousing schemes, master plans, roads and freeways, greenbelt towns and community/neighbourhood style planning.
• -        Post-World War II;’The rise of the planned shopping mall in the late 1950s captured the broader impact of American consumerism and automobilism in the post-war era, with planning systems and strategies largely adapted to accommodate new forms of suburban life.’ Increased traffic demand encouraged the influence of freeways and Chicago inspired traffic models. Freeways were introduced as a link between the infrastructure and accommodates the urban economic growth.
• -        Multiple Narratives; There was then a time when planners were identified as more than just ‘urban architects’ and they were accounted for more analytical tasks and projects including; environmental management, landscape planning, public participation, transference of development rights and human scaled place sensitive planning.
• -        The New Australian Urbanism; was when there was a refocus on design and streetscape, liveability and walkability, compactness and community. 

Progress in Australian Planning History; Traditions, Themes and Transformations (2014)

This piece, also by Freestone, discusses the Planning History of Australia along with the arguments for and against the different historical planning processes. He begins by acknowledging why planning history is important for the development of planning in Australia today. He exclaims how history are ‘the pathway to a more critical understanding of planning’s goals, achievements, limitations and failures’. He then continues to discuss the concerns of depending on planning history for future reference; these include the empirical approach of research, the history is written by the planners and the stories are dominated by Western perspectives.

The article then goes on to discuss more specifically the Australian planning history and its development. Freestone examines five phases of planning history in Australia and their economic, cultural and social challenges and practices.

• Inventing planning (1900s-1930s)
• Post-war reconstruction (1940s-early 1950s)
• The long boom (1950s-1960s)
• Re-imagining planning (late 1960s-1970s)
• Neo-liberalism and beyond (1980s to date).

The next section of the article compares planning history to the history of other fields. This is important to consider as planning is such a multidisciplinary practice. Architectural history explores three main areas interconnecting with planning, that is that many architects moved towards planning as a practice when it first emerged as there was no professionals in the field, there has also been a greater appreciation for architectural management thanks to planning and regulations. The final link is between architecture and urban design; that is the design dimension of planning controls and spaces. Urban history is another aspect that connects to planning, an important connection is the interest of urban growth and control. Key drivers of growth include migration, employment, economic restructuring, car ownership and capital investment. These factors are all researched in urban history and are considered today in planning processes, social history is another branch which crosses paths with planning, for example social structures and development. Environmental history is another practice which forms a connection to planning, particularly in Australia where the landscape is significantly important to urban life and to the Australian identity. The following section acknowledges different areas that have also influenced planning practice in Australia they include;

• Community participation
• Morphology of planned landscapes (urban form, resolution and time)
• Womens contributions to planning
• Children and planning
• Indigenous people and planning
• New data (big data, technology)

The final section discusses further concepts and evaluations which have changed planning history and have given planning a push forward; they include evaluations and outcomes, collaboration with other disciplines and with the community.

Urban Planning: New Directions at the Turn of the Century

New Directions in Planning Theory - Susan Fainstein 

In the article by Fainstein, she addresses what is necessary to improve human life and what can be done by urban planners to contribute to this. Three main concepts were developed to enable an improved urban life; all are not mutually exclusive.

The first is the communicative model; where the planner is the negotiator and intermediary among stakeholders, which include residents, businesses and business owners, political parties, schools, construction managers and many others. Being a mediator for discussion allows different stakeholders to engage and express their varying opinions on the matter. Exchanging opinions and changing language however does not allow agreements to be made, and this is the job of a planner, to mediate what ideas will solve the necessary urban problems.

The second concept which Fainstein believes would help contribute to improving urban life is the New Urbanism model. New Urbanism refers to a design based approach to planned urban development. This concept relates much to earlier planning theorists (as discussed in previous posts). The new urbanest calls for mixed uses, changing the structure of housing for different income groups, building developments. It focuses on having a civic or centre and a well-defined edge where neighbourhoods would lie. It would consist of strip mall developments and freeways which would enhance urban life and engagement.

The third concept is referred to as the Just City. The Just City bases its functions and systems on equity. This is where the city not only provides welfare but also generates increased wealth and embodies middle-class society rather than promoting structural inequality. Participation of decision making is an ideal aspect of a Just City, this also allows minorities to have a voice rather than only major power groups. 

Anglo-American Town Planning Theory Since 1945; Three Significant Developments But No Paradigm Shifts - Nigel Taylor

This article outlines three movements in planning history that are not necessarily paradigm shifts, but are still extremely significant changes to the way planning is viewed as a profession. The first main change is from viewing planners as ‘urban architects’ to planners and organisers of new systems and rational processes. Taylor identifies four points for this change;

1. Towns are now viewed as systems of activities and flux rather than of design and physical being;

2. Planners work by the notion of planning a town via economic, social and physical means;

3. Towns are ‘alive’ rather than a place where blueprints are developed; and

4. More scientific, analytic methods of planning were introduced.

Planning was no longer viewed as simply an art, but more of a practice which involved analysing activity systems. Taylor then begins to explain the change from the procedural method of planning to community involvement, otherwise known as the ‘communicative planning theory’. It began as the question was raised whether a planner, although knowledgeable, would be able to decide what is right for a particular environment without understanding the history, the culture of the people and the needs of the community. This introduced the communicative turn in planning theory. The third change is from modernist to postmodernist planning theory where there was a change in normative planning thought.